An In-Depth Analysis of Password Managers and Two-Factor Authentication Tools

About this work

Abstract

This survey analyzes password managers and two-factor authentication as complementary approaches to improving password-based authentication. It adapts a comparative evaluation framework to assess representative academic and commercial solutions across security, privacy, and usability properties. The study examines local, online, and cryptographic password managers alongside major 2FA mechanisms, and considers how combining password management with a second factor changes the overall balance of protection and user burden. In addition to organizing the design space and identifying strengths and weaknesses of existing tools, the article highlights unresolved research challenges and directions for building authentication systems that provide stronger protection without sacrificing usability.